Tanzania¶

Population¶

Tanzania has about 52.3 million inhabitants. The population has increased 2.4 fold over the past 30 years. The economically active population is 26.5 million, 73% of which is employed in agriculture (down from85% in 1985). The rural population was 83% in 1985 and now it is 71%.

Population growth chart and 2015 population density map

Population growth and population density in 2015 in Tanzania. Data sources:FAO and Worldpop.

Development¶

It is worth noting that Tanzania is fighting a major AIDS epidemic, which limits productive labor in some regions (Pretty and et al. 2011).

Human Development Index ranking and value

Human Development Index ranking for Tanzania. Data source: UNDP.

Gender¶

Gender Inequality and Development Indexes

Gender Inequality and Development Indices for Tanzania. Data source: UNDP.

Health and nutrition¶

Life expectancy at birth in Tanzania has improved modestly from 47 in 1970 to 62 in 2013, but under-five mortality reduced fourfold (from 21 to 5%) over the same time period (UNICEF, 2014). Under-five mortality was 8% in 2010 (NBS & ICF Macro, 2011a). The National Nutrition Survey found a large reduction in stunting from 42% in 2010 to 35% in 2014 (MHSW & TFNC, 2014; NBS & ICF Macro, 2011a). Underweight also reduced from almost 16% to just over 13% during the same time period, while wasting remained unchanged at roughly 5%. Interestingly, the National Panel Survey (NPS) found an increase in wasting from 3% in 2008/09 to 7% in 2010-2011; however, this change likely reflected an acute period of malnutrition. Rural households generally have a greater burden of child anthropometric indicators than urban households. Poverty is clearly associated with higher rates of stunting and underweight, but seems to be unassociated with wasting.

Only about 3% of women in Tanzania have short stature (height < 145 cm, NBS & ICF Macro, 2011a). On the other hand, there are nearly four times as many women overweight or obese (20% have a BMI ≥ 25) than underweight (5.5% have a BMI < 18.5, MHSW & TFNC, 2014). Urban women are more than twice as likely to be overweight or obese as rural women (NBS & ICF Macro, 2011a). Variation in underweight and overweight prevalence between regions is vast: Less than 5% of women are estimated to be underweight in Mbeya as opposed to 25% in Dodoma (NBS & ICF Macro, 2011a). Conversely, only 10% of women in Dodoma are estimated to be overweight or obese compared to 47% in Dar es Salaam (NBS & ICF Macro, 2011a). A nutrition transition is taking place in all of Tanzania, even in rural populations. A recent study found the prevalence of overweight and obesity in women from three rural districts to be three times higher than underweight women (Keding et al., 2013). To our knowledge, no anthropometric data is available at the country level for men.

Child height-for-age Z-score and women’s body mass index

Average height-for-age Z-score for children (a child with a score less than -2 is considered stunted), and body mass index for women. Data source: DHS.

Micronutrients¶

In Tanzania, known micronutrient deficiencies include iron, vitamin A, and iodine, and there are likely others, such as zinc and calcium, that have not been assessed. According to the Tanzania Demographic and Health Micronutrient Survey (TDHMS), anemia burdens 59% of children (41% from iron deficiency) and 41% of women (35% from iron deficiency, NBS & ICF Macro, 2011b). Further, about 35% of children and 30% of women are deficient in iron. Approximately 41% of women took no iron supplements during their last pregnancy (NBS & ICF Macro, 2011b). An estimated 33% of children and 37% of women are vitamin A deficient. Roughly a quarter (26%) of women took a postpartum vitamin A dose (NBS & ICF Macro 2011b). About 36% of women are iodine deficient, and 47-60% of households have adequately iodizes salt (NBS & ICF Macro, 2011b).

Dietary diversity seems to be increasing in Tanzania, but the proportion of households experiencing high food energy deficiency increased from 24% in 2008-09 to 29% in 2010-11 (WFP, 2012). Approximately 8% of households have poor dietary intake (PDI), which indicates high energy deficiency and low dietary diversity (WFP, 2012). About 18% of households have low dietary diversity (consumed four or less food groups out of seven, WFP, 2012). On average, 70% of calories consumed in Tanzania come from starchy staples; nearly a third (30%) of households obtain over 75% of their calories from staples (WFP, 2012). Obesogenic diets in Tanzania consist of bread, cakes, sugar, and tea (Keding et al., 2013). Rural households consume on average 58% of calories from their own production. The central zone has the highest rate of chronic PDI (5%), indicated by high rates of PDI in both 2008-09 and 2010-11 (WFP, 2012).

The New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition works on policy changes and investments African agriculture to benefit smallholder farmers and reduce hunger and poverty. They have a country report for Tanzania.

MicroNutruent Density Index

Micronutrient Density Index (MDI) between 1961 and 2011. Source: Beal et al.

Prevalence of Inadequate Nutrient Intake

Estimated prevalence of inadequate intake (%) of micronutrients between 1961 and 2011. Source: Beal et al.

Elevation¶

The elevation of Tanzania is between 0 and 5780 meters above sea level. Half the land area is below 1130 meter and in between 720 and 1280 meter.

Elevation Map

Elevation in Tanzania (m above sea level). Source SRTM. Download data.

Climate¶

The climate in Tanzania varies by location, from tropical along the coastal region to temperate in the interior highlands. The central and southern highlands have a single rainy season from October/November to April. The rest of the country experiences two rainy seasons, a short rainy season from October to December called Vuli and a long rainy season from March to June called Masika. The highest rainfall in the country occurs in the Lake Tanganyika basin as well as the southern highlands.

The annual average temperature in Tanzania is between -3 and 27.8 °C. The median annual average temperature is 22.6 °C and half the land area has an annual average temperature between 21.3 and 23.9 °C. For more details see the monthly temperature maps. For projected future climate change, see these maps.

data source: WorldClim

Average annual mean temperature (°C) for 1950-2000 in Tanzania. Source WorldClim

The annual total precipitation in Tanzania is between 410 and 2440 mm. The median is 970 mm and half the land area has an annual total precipitation between 800 and 1110 mm. For more details see the monthly precipitation maps. For projected future climate change, see these maps.

data source: WorldClim

Average annual precipitation (mm) for 1950-2000 in Tanzania. Source WorldClim

Soils¶

data source: SoilGrids

Percent of organic matter in soil. Source SoilGrids

data source: SoilGrids

Soil pH. Source SoilGrids

Water¶

Tanzania has several large lakes along the borders with Uganda (Lake Victoria), Congo (Lake Tanganyika), and and Malawi (Lake Malawi). The country does not have major rivers. There are nine major drainage basins in Tanzania that end in three distinct different bodies of water: the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and the Atlantic Ocean. The majority of the country including the Pangani River, the Rufiji River, and the Lake Malawi basin drain to the Indian Ocean. The Lake Victoria basin feeds the Nile River, and ends in the Mediterranean. The western region of the country, including the Lake Tanganyika basin, drains through the Congo River to the Atlantic Ocean.

Water usage in Tanzania was estimated to be 5,142 million m³ in 2002, of which the vast majority (85%) was consumed by irrigated agriculture. Despite this, irrigated land is quite a small percentage of the total land with potential for irrigation. About 10% of the area that could potentially be irrigated has irrigation equipment. Almost all of this irrigated land is fed with surface water, with only an estimated 0.2% fed with groundwater (FAO AQUASTAT).

Renewable groundwater resources are estimated to amount to 30 km³/year. There is a problem with excessive fluoride in the drinking water (British Geological Survey).

Tanzania has 5 dams, with total capacity of 4196 million m³. Three of the four main dams are in the Rufiji River basin.

Water policy and investment¶

The 2002 National Water Policy and 2006 National Water Sector Development Strategy support the devolution of water management and the development of localized water supply and sanitation plans. The 2009 Water Resources Management Act implements these policies by outlining water governance institutions including National Water Boards, Basin Water Boards, and Water User Associations. The Act requires anyone that diverts or abstracts water for uses other than domestic purposes get the Basin Water Board’s approval. Landholders are permitted to access groundwater through hand-dug wells with permits, yet if the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (responsible for implementation of all water policies) calls an area a “Groundwater Controlled Area”, permits are then required. The 2009 Water and Supply Act focuses on drinking water supply and sanitation and devolves authority to basin levels: the Community Owned Water Supply Organizations (COWSOs) are in charge of water access, fees, and infrastructure. The National Water Sector Development Programme (2006-2025) and the Agriculture Sector Development Programme outline a series of investment in irrigation, but progress has been slow (Gine and Perez-Foguet, 2008; USAID, 2011b). The programs have also focused more on engineering components as opposed to social and participatory components (Gine and Perez-Foguet, 2008). A lack of focus in the latter is particularly problematic since local water bodies are responsible for their own cost-recovery (Gine and Perez-Foguet, 2008), and because designing and implementing water management plans requires technical skills, oversight, and cooperation.

Map of Irrigated Agricultural Land

Percentage of agricultural land that is irrigated. Data source: GMIA

Tanzania has attracted attention from the index insurance industry for several years (Osgood et al., 2007). The IFC/World bank and Syngenta Foundation have been working in East Africa since 2009 on a project called Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise (ACRE). ACRE, previously known as Kilimo Salama, is active in Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania, and insures 4,310 farmers in Tanzania for drought, excess rain, and diseases.

In 2011, a consortium led by World Vision and MicroEnsure started a pilot project called MLAP (Market-Led Agricultural Product). The project offered weather insurance to 24,000 cotton farmers. The project continued to operate at least as of 2014.

Land tenure¶

The President in Tanzania has the authority to allocate and determine the use of most of Tanzania’s natural resources, including land and water. The 1995 Land Policy and 1999 Land Act and Village Land Act supports both private property rights and some customary rights. The law legalizes land inheritance and transfer, and outlines four different types of land: village, customary rights of occupancy, granted right of occupancy, leasehold, and residential license. In rural areas, village and regional authorities remain in control of most smallholder farmland and are in charge of allocating the first three types of land. Because transferring customary rights in these settings is confusing and under village authority, most farmers do not have confident ownership of their plots. The 2004 Land (Amendment) Act expands mortgage provisions, making it easier for lenders to take possession of mortgaged land if the borrower defaults. Although the Strategic Plan for the Implementation of the Land Acts (SPILL) was established in 2006 due to poor implementation and enforcement of legal rights, the general consensus seems to that in most rural areas, occupancy rights have not been registered and thus land cannot be used for collateral (all from USAID 2011). The bias in land tenure legislation that addresses land issues for smallholders and land tenure for commercial farmers seem to promote the formalization of tenure for some and not others (Pallotti 2008). Commercial development is usually facilitated by the central government. The Ministry of Lands and Human Settlement Development is responsible for implementing land policy.

Crop production¶

Maize is by far the most important crop, and main staple, in Tanzania.

Top Crops

Area planted to the major crops in Tanzania. Data source: FAO.

Cultivation Distribution

Spatial distribution of maize and rice in Tanzania. Data source: MapSPAM. More crop maps.

Crop Yield

Crop yield over the past 30 years, for the main five crops in Tanzania. Data source: FAO.

Annual linear growth rates of crop yield over the past 30 years, for the main five crops , were between -258 (Cassava) and 25.1 (Sunflower seed) kg/ha

Livestock¶

A series of policies and policy frameworks govern livestock production in Tanzania. The 2010 Livestock Sector Development Strategy (LSDS) was established as an implementing framework and operational tool for the 2006 National Livestock Policy. The LSDS has overarching goals in food security and increasing farm income. To do this, the framework emphasizes the delivery of livestock services and inputs to farmers, strengthening the capacity of farming communities and the private sectors, and enhancing capacity of national and local government institutions that provide services to livestock farmers. Seven objectives and 32 outputs guide the tasks of LSDS; they range from means to increase production (eggs, milk, meat, draught animals), disease control and the provision of veterinary services, enhanced product marketing (e.g., infrastructure, information, processing, identification, and traceability), and legal and institutional strengthening (including regulations). The LSDS lays out very specific goals in these areas (GoBF 2010). In 2014, the Ministry founded the National Livestock Policy Hub, which is anchored in the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development.

Top Livestock

Main livestock species (millions of heads) in Tanzania. Data source: FAO.

Livestock Distribution

Spatial distribution (head per km²) of cattle and goats in Tanzania. Data source: Gridded Livestock of the World. More livestock maps.

Aquaculture and fisheries¶

The 1997 Fisheries Sector Policy and Strategy, 2003 Fisheries Act, and 2004 Principal Fisheries Regulations are some of the key legislation guiding aquaculture in Tanzania. Objectives of these policies include conservation and sustainable management and are carried out through harvest requirements such as annual licensing (FAO n.d.).

Tanzania borders the coast, but not much significant aquaculture/mariculture exists, and is rather characterized by “vast but as of yet untapped potential”. A 2008 report (Wetengere et al. ,2008) indicates that a task force undertook a National Aquaculture Development Strategy. The report concludes that the government should encourage farmer-to-farmer extension to promote growth in the aquaculture industry.

Aquaculture top species by tonnes. Data source:FAO.

Fisheries top species by tonnes. Data source:FAO.

Yield gaps¶

Yield Gap

Yield Gap (1000 kg / ha).

Fertilizer use¶

data source: FAO

Access and markets¶

Market Access

Market Access. Data source: JRC.

Selected research and development priorities and projects¶

The research programs within the CGIAR have several projects in Tanzania, which include some of the following. The International Livestock Research Institute has a number of projects that focus on small-scale irrigation for livestock feed production, molecular epidemiology networks for the delivery of vaccines, disease in smallholder dairy cows, the integration of dairy goats and root production, and value chains. The Livestock and Fish Program focuses on smallholder dairy value chains. Tanzania is also part of the mNutrition project. The Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Research Program works in Tanzania, but does not have specific projects for the country alone at this time.

The Tanzania Natural Resource Forum is a member-driven NGO that seeks to improve governance and accountability in Tanzania’s natural resource sector to achieve more sustainable rural livelihoods and better conservation outcomes. The Tanzania (http://tanzania.vitalsigns.org/)[Vital Signs] team collects and integrates data on agricultural management and productivity, ecosystems and human well-being to provide near real-time data and diagnostic tools to help inform agricultural decisions and monitor their outcomes.

FAO has several projects in Tanzania, which include food systems development, conservation of globally important agricultural heritage systems, transboundary agro-ecosystem management in the Kagera river basin, and the protection from cassava disease, among others. FAO is performing the Towards Climate Change and Adaptation project in Tanzania PDF. The project encourages collaborative management of land and water amongst farmers in Kiroka, Morogoro region. The Partnership for Agricultural Water for Africa AgWA led by the FAO is active in several African countries, including Tanzania. AgWA is an autonomous voluntary partnership that seeks to develop synergy between national and international institutions, as well as provide technical support for The five priority areas are Advocacy, Partner Harmonization, Resource Mobilization, Generating and Sharing Knowledge, and Capacity Building. Specific to Tanzania, AgWA has completed a project called Building up Mature Partnership for Scaling up Agricultural Water Management in Africa, which helped to establish AgWA implement its first two years of operations.

The most recent Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper prioritizes irrigation and rain harvesting infrastructure, land reform for large and small scale uses, mechanization, agro- and fishery processing, extension services, fair and competitive prices for farmers, longer shelf life for fishery and agricultural products, and promoting aquaculture industry development, among other things (IMF PRSP 2010). Tanzania is also part of the Science for Nature and People (SNAP) project, a collaborative between the Nature Conservancy, Wildlife Conservation Society, and the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis. The project seeks to guide investment in infrastructure to expand commercial agriculture while maintaining ecosystem services and the protection of biodiversity. Finally, the Agricultural Water Solutions Project (AWM) PDF, active from 2008-2011, is a project by a consortium of research, scientific, and commercial organizations that seeks to unlock the potential of smallholder farmers in many countries around the world, including Tanzania. The AWM focuses on addressing the needs of target populations rather than focusing on the development of additional water resources. One focus of the AWM is on mapping livelihoods, in order to understand the needs of the constituent farmers.

The US African Development Foundation supports many projects in Tanzania

Politics overview¶

Tanzania transitioned to a full democracy in 2010, and since then, research on the political system has been limited. Despite the transition to multiparty democracy, the long-term ruling party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM), continues to rule the presidency and assembly. Since 1995, the party has maintained between 60-80 percent of the seats in the legislature and votes in presidential elections. Some suggest that this is due to a legal and institutional framework that favors the ruling party (van Cranenburgh 1996). Others suggest that the CCM has maintained strength because of its roots in ujamaa socialism and its public-sanctioned respect for rules (i.e., unlike many other African countries, the party has not tried to change constitutional rules like term limits) (Lawson and Rakner 2005). CHADEMA and CUF are opposition parties, but these parties are fairly weak and their leadership has changed several times. Kelsall (2003) suggest the weakness in opposition parties is due to the absence of associations like trade unions and civil society groups that have laid the groundwork for opposition parties in other African countries (Kelsall 2003). Religious organizations, however, are strong social bodies in Tanzania (Lawson and Rakner 2005).

Pre-2000 political science scholarship on Tanzania highlights the political system’s tendency to produce clientelistic relationships between constituents and elected leaders (van Cranenburgh, 1996). This legacy is important, as it may be engrained as part of political processes today. That said, the Central Bank and civil service are said to be largely independent despite the fact that the president is charged with appointment (Lawson and Rakner, 2005), which may indicate that the system has become less clientelistic than it was in years passed. The Tanzanian government has also made strides to reduce corruption and increase transparency. A centralized payment and financial management system are used to oversee the Tanzanian budget, which limits the opportunities for spending beyond what is stipulated in the budget, but there is not much transparency in the budget allocation process (Lawson and Rakner, 2005).

Executive Structure¶

Tanzania is a president-parliamentary system, meaning that the president appoints the prime minister and can dissolve the cabinet. Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete has been president since 2005. Filling his two-term limit, a new candidate will run in the 2015 election. Presidents are elected for five-year terms, and in addition to cabinet appointment authority, have some legislative powers. Although the president in Tanzania is not as constitutionally powerful as in Burkina Faso and Senegal, there are few constitutional requirements that stipulate that the president be accountable to the legislature. Anecdotal evidence suggests that authority is concentrated in presidency and with his senior ministers (Lawson and Rakner 2005).

Electoral rules and party arrangement¶

Tanzania’s legislature and president is elected via plurality rule in single-member districts. In the 350 person unicameral assembly, 239 seats are filled via election. Women are required to hold 30 percent of the assembly’s seats, but these women are appointed by their parties rather than elected (Meena 2003) in proportion to the number seats that parties gain through election. The president can appoint up to ten additional members to the legislature. Members serve five-year terms.

Party discipline in legislative voting is surprisingly strong in the Parliament given that democratic consolidation and institutionalization is still in progress, and given that the system’s electoral rules usually prompt legislative individualism. Despite being disciplined, Members of Parliament (MPs) seem to exist in a largely undefined role. They are in frequent conflict with other levels of government, particularly the district government. These conflicts seem to be the result of CCM dominance as well as overlapping and unclear authority in the national and district-level government structures (Lawson and Rakner 2005). Given the powers of the president, the powers of the local government, and a disciplined CCM party, it is plausible that the legislature has limited oversight on and input in law making.

Decentralization¶

The Constitution and a series of legislative documents, including the 1982 Local Government Acts, 1997 the Regional Administration Act, the 1999 Local Government Laws Act, and the 2002 Public Services Act outline the basis of the local government structure. In addition to these basic laws, the 1996-2000 Local Government Reform Agenda decentralizes tasks to local government to improve service delivery.

The country is divided into 26 administrative regions, which are then divided into districts and then divisions. The district authorities in rural areas include district councils, village councils, township authorities, and ward development committees. The first three entities have authority to pass local budgets and form by-laws. Village and township councils are responsible for formulating plans in their local areas. It is not clear how the executive branch, of which includes the District Executive Director and regional commissioners, relates to the legislative body, the councillors. Powers between these bodies seem to overlap and, as in the national case, are not explicitly assigned (Lawson and Rakner, 2005). If the district level executive is not subject to oversight via the local assembly, and instead is an extension of the central government executive, this may explain why local legislative agents conflict with national MPs. Council agents are elected every five years, and chairpersons and mayors are elected by these councils. Local government revenue is fairly small, accounting for less than 20 percent of the local government budget (ibid). Local governments thus rely heavily on central transfers.